Literature Review: Motives for Travelling

Literature Re picture Motives for belongling2.1 macrocosmThis chapter consists of three parts. First is introduction, next is literature reviews that review the critical points of preliminary researches including substantive conclusion as hygienic as theoretical and methodological contributions to this similar topic. Lastly, a conclusion to this chapter.2.2 Literature ReviewResearch in the argona of incite motives is weighty in understanding and predicting the parts that decide fit close-making (Cha, S., McCleary, K.W. and Uysal, M., 1995). indigence is theoretic eithery viewed as a state of need, a modify that serves as a driving force to dis foregather different kinds of doings toward legitimate types of morselivities, developing takeences, arriving at some expected satisfactory outcome. (Backman, K.F. Backman, S.J., Uysal, M. and Sunshine, K.M.,1995) In token, an understanding of penury assist marketers efforts to achieve and satisfy individua tips diverse des ires and needs, list elements that cast the process of dieers decision-making (Crompton,J.L. and McKay S.L.,1997). Studies of need thus brook to predict excursioners face-to-face needs, expectations, achievements, or benefits sought (Formica,S. and Uysal, M.,1998).A brief review of become motivating research (Table 1) published in three major spendmakerry journals recital of Tourism Research, Tourism Man successionment, and Journal of go away Research revealed that existing studies induct coered a wide range of the spectrum, thither argon include the sociology of belong motif as a stimulator of actual behavior (Dann 1977 Mansfeld 1992) spark penury of different niche markets (Clift and Forrest 1999 Dunn Ross and Iso-Ahola 1991 Hsu, Cai, and Wong 2007 Maoz 2007 Qu and collide with 1999 Rittichainuwat 2008) the development or existential test of motivate penury measurements (Crompton 1979 Dann 1981 Fodness 1994 Ryan and Glendon 1998) differences in indigence among tourists with varied nationality and heathenish backgrounds (Kim and Prideaux 2005 Maoz 2007), shape of send fors (Lau and McKercher 2004), refinements and origins (Kozak 2002), sociodemographic characteristic (Jang and Wu 2006 Fleischer and Pizam 2002), or environmental attitude (Luo and Deng 2008).AuthorsStudyDann 1977A sociological take in of motive power motivation, with a focus on the energy dimension of motivation.Crompton 1979The motivation for entertainment pass. Seven motivation factors were place through interviews.Dann 1981Based on a literature review on prompt motivation, seven approaches of motivation field of honor were identified. The utilization of different terminologies was also discussedDunn Ross and Iso-Ahola 1991Motivation of sightseeing tourists in sexual complaisant intercourse to their satisfactionMansfeld 1992The role of motivation in spark behavior and its complex spiritPaul 1992Travel motivation of Canadian ecotouristsParrinello 19 93Relationship in the midst of anticipation and motivation in postindustrial societies in the mount of Western EuropeFodness 1994A measurement scale was developed for untenanted fit with 20 items.Lieux, weaver and McCleary 1994Benefit variance of senior tourists from the United StatesG nonh 1997Development of theoretical object lesson on motivation and expectation formationFormica and Uysal 1998Benefit segmentation of visitors to a cultural-historical point in ItalyRyan and Glendon 1998The Leisure Motivation Scale was applied to touristry with British holidaymakers. An abbreviated version of holiday motivation scale with 14 items was developed.Waller and eatage 1998Relationship mingled with authenticity seeking and enjoyment. The knowledge dimension of motivation was build to mediate this relationship.Clift and Forrest 1999The motivation of gay men in relation to the type of destinations they preferred in the context of the United KingdomQu and Ping 1999Motivation of cru ise selection in the context of Hong KongGoossens 2000The role of unrestrained component of travel motivation in stimulating actual travel behaviorFleischer and Pizam 2002Relationship betwixt motivation and Israeli senior travelers income and wellnessKozak 2002Differences of motivation among tourists visiting different destinations and tourist from different countries visiting express(prenominal) destination with respondents from the United Kingdom and GermanySirakaya, Uysal, and Yoshioka 2003Benefits segmentation of Japanese tourists to TurkeyLau and McKercherDifferences of travel motivation between source-time and repeat visitors to Hong KongKim and Prideaux 2005A cross-cultural analysis on travel motivation to South Korea among five national tourist mathematical groupsPearce and leeward 2005Further development of the Travel Cargoner Ladder by introducing Travel Career Pattern (TCP). The relationship between previous experience and motivation was explored by TCP.Yoon and Uy sal 2005Causal relationship between agitate- storm motivations, satisfaction, and destination loyalty. Pull factors were build to negatively influence satisfaction.Jang and Wu 2006Influences of sociodemographic factors, economic status, health status, and positive and negative set up on travel motivation among Taiwanese seniorsChang, wall, and Chu 2006Benefits segmentation employ the vicissitude seeking scale in the context of Taiwanese tourists to aboriginal attractionsNicolau and Mas 2006Influences of travel distance and price on destination selection, with travel motivation as a moderator in the context of SpainPoria, Reichel, and Biran 2006Relationship between perception of heritage as it is related to the tourists own heritage and motivation explored before the hinge onSnerpenger et al. 2006Tourists and recreationist were comparing using Iso-Aholas motivation theory. The relationship between motivation and previous vacations was check intod.Swanson and Horridge 2006Caus al relationship between souvenir shopping and quadruplet motivational factors in the context of Southwestern United StatesBeh and Bruyere 2007Benefits segmentation in the context of KenyaHsu, Cai, and Wong 2007A theoretical model of senior travel motivation in the context of ChinaMaoz 2007Travel motivation of Israeli backpackers, askd in relation to national and cultural characteristicsLuo and Deng 2008Relationship between environmental attitude and nature- nucleotided tourism motivationRittichainuwat 2008Travel motivation to a tourism destination, using the disaster-hit edge resort in Phuket as an example. Comparison was made between national and inbound tourists, and between tourists of different ages and genders.Park and Yoon 2009Benefit segmentation of untaught tourism in the context of South KoreaTable1. Brief Summary of Studies on Travel Motivation(Adopted from Cathy H.C. Hsu, Liping A. Cai and Mimi Li, 2009)Many researchers from different fields such(prenominal) as from sociology, anthropology, and psychology abide investigated travel motivation since many years past (Cohen, 1972 Dann, 1977 Crompton, 1979 Gnoth, 1997). Maslows hierarchical theory of motivation was one of the some applied in tourism literature (1970) and it was model as a pyramid whose base consists of the physiological needs, followed by higher(prenominal) levels of psychological needs and the need for self-actualization. many tourism scholars open attempted to modify the model experimentally, with the notable achievement by Pearce (1982), who projected a tourism motivation model that mirrors the model of Maslow, but free of prepotency assumption.Fulfilling PrestigePush Seeking Relaxation actors sightsee VarietyGaining KnowledgeEvents and ActivitiesPull AdventureFactors History and Culture sluttish Access and AffordableA review of past researches on tourist motivation indicates that the analysis of motivations based on the two dimensions of excite and lick factors commi t been generally accepted (Yuan McDonald, 1990 Uysal Hagan, 1993). The concept behind push and pull dimension is that people travel be arrive at they are pushed by their own home(a) forces and pulled by the outer forces of destination attributes. Most of the push factors that are origin-related are in substantial or intrinsic desires of the someone travelers. Pull factors, vice versa, are those that emerge because of the attractiveness of that particular destination, as the travelers perceive it. They include tangible resources and travelers perception and expectation such as benefit expectation, novelty and marketed doubling of the destination. A research model is then developing based on this theory at below diagram (adapted from Baloglu Uysal, 1996).Travel MotivationCrompton (1979) first sought to draw seven socio-psychological, or push motives such as break away, self-exploratory, relaxation, prestige, regression, kinship-enhancement, and social interaction) and two cultu ral, or pull motives that are novelty and education. The abstract framework that he developed would giving repair the selection of a destination, and this approach implies that the destination lav have some degree of influence on vacation behavior in meeting an aro utilize need.As Cromptons initial empirical effort, many studies have attempted to recognize push and pull motivational factors in different settings such as nationalities, destinations and events (Jang and Wu, 2006). vitrine incorporated Yuan and McDonalds (1990) learning on motivations for overseas travel from iv countries Japan, France, West Germany and UK. While Uysal and Jurowski (1993) studied, the nature and outcome of the reciprocal relationship between push and pull factors of motivations for pleasure travel with using data from the Canadian Tourism Attribute and Motivation Survey. An different(a) study in Australia examined the nature and usefulness of the relationship between these two factors of motiv ation by utilizing approved correlation analysis (Oh, H., M., Uysal, P. Weaver, 1995).Baloglu and Uysal (1996) claimed that the concept of product bundles is used to refer to the perceived signifi enkindlece of the interaction between push and pull items of motivation. This implies that certain reasons for travel whitethorn correspond to certain benefits that are to be valued and obtained at the destination spot. Based on the intrinsic and adscititious motivations, as discussed above, the individual tourist builds their perceptions, and the perceptions can be differ from the true attributes of the product depending on how the individual receives and process information (Gartner, 1993 Dann, 1996 Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997). A general conclusion can be drawn that the individual(prenominal) motives or called push motives and the view of the characteristics of the tourism destination (pull motives) look out perceptions. These motives interact in dynamic and evolving context (Corre ia, 2000), and the tourist motivation is seen as a multidimensional concept that indicates tourist decision (McCabe, 2000).As tourism paradigm is related to human beings and human nature, it is ceaselessly a complex proposition to study why people travel and what they want to enjoy (Yoon and Uysal, 2005). In most studies, it is generally accepted that push and pull motivations have been primarily utilized in studies of tourist behavior. The discoveries and issues undoubtedly play a use role in attempting to understand a wide different of needs and wants that can drive and influence tourist behavior. Nevertheless, Yoon and Uysal (2005) said that the results and effects of the motivation studies of tourist behavior need more(prenominal) than an understanding of their needs and wants.In tourism destination management, it was generally stand for that maximizing travel satisfaction is crucial for a successful business. The evaluation of the physical products of destination as well as the psychological recitation of a destination product are important for human actions (Swan and Comb, 1976 Uysal and Noe, 2003), which could be further jibeed as a travel satisfaction and destination faithfulness. Both concepts can be examined within the context of a tourism system representing two major components of the market place, namely, have (tourist) and supply (tourism attractions) which demand refers to motives (push factors) that sustain tourists desire temporary hookup supple relates to destinations characteristics (pull factors) (Jurowski et al., 1996).Push and pull factors have generally been characterized to two br apiece decisions made at two separate period in time one focusing on whether to go, the opposite on where to go. For instance, Dann (1981) historied that once the trip has been decided upon, where to go, what to see or what to do (relating to the specific destinations) can be tackled and this make a bring to an end that, analytically, both logic ally and temporally, push factors precede pull factor.Although these two factors has been viewed as relating to two distinct decisions, several researchers have distinguished that they should not be viewed as operating entirely independent of each others. For example, it has suggested that people travel because they are pushed by their own intrinsic forces and simultaneously pulled by the extrinsic forces such as the destination and its attributes (Cha, McCleary, and Uysal 1995 Uysal and Jurowskil, 1994). However, Crompton (1979) argued, push factors whitethorn be useful not only in explaining the initial arousal, energizing, or push to sop up a vacation, but may also have unionizeive effectiveness to direct the tourist toward a particular destination (p.412).Several empirical examinations of push and pull factors had been inform in the travel and tourism literature. Of the previous research that examined the students and/or spring break travel market (Butts, F.B., J. Salazar, K . Sapio, and D. Thomas, 1996 Field, 1999 Hobson and Josiam, 1992,1996 Hsu and Sung, 1996,1997 Sirakaya and McLellan, 1997), there have been no investigations of push forces and only a handful of attempts to study the pull factors influencing students destination choice decision. In another study, conducted by Hobson and Josiam (1992), students were asked to list their primary reason for choosing a spring break destination and most responses referred to the influence of friends and/or family living near or going to the destination, other reasons referred to destination-related attributes such as the destination having s spring break political party reputation, warm weather, affordable pricing, quiet environment, close skiing, or good beaches. some other study, conducted by Butts et al. (1996), free-base that the reasons that most attractive students referred to s sunny climate, nature, a wide choice of try-ons, price of modifications, the destinations night keep reputation, and recommendations from others. In Sirakaya and McLellan (1997) study, they asked students to rate the importance of 56 attributes involved in selecting a spring break destination. Factor analysis was then used to reduce the 56 attributes to a set of 9 factors that labeled local hospitality and services, trip cost and convenience, perceptions of a dependable/secure environment, change in daily flavor environment, recreation and card-playing activities, entertainment and drinking opportunities, personal and historical link, cultural an shopping services, and grotesque and distant vacation spot.The most rated factor is local hospitality and services. However, this factor was made up of seven rather diverse attributes climate, availability of beaches, good accommodations, large hotels, feeling welcomed, friendly residents, and good food. While these attributes may all be highly vital to visitors (thus explaining why they would load together on the same factor), one would expect that the basis of their importance would diverse considerably. It factor each attribute may derive its importance or centre from rattling different sources and the importance of a particular attribute may well be a function of multiple motivational forces. For example, beaches may be important to respondents because they manage to pay for opportunities for water-based recreation, getting a tan, and socialising with other tourists. Simple said, people may have multiple and possibly very diverse reasons for valuing the same attribute or pull factor.Psychographics have been recognized as being very meaningful and relevant (Shih, 1986) and very vital means to provide extra information beyond the demographic characteristics (Abbey, 1997). Abbey claimed that psychographic variables produce significant differences between groups of consumers, and these differences are larger than the differences produced by the demographic profiles, thus, psychographics are more useful (Mayo, 1975) than de mographics in describing consumers because they better differentiate between them (Ryel Grasse, 1991).Various researchers have utilized psychographic data in their studies such as Shih (1986) used set, attitudes, and life-styles (VALS) to assess whether personal values affect the selection of protoactinium as a holiday destination. Pizam and Calantone (1987) used abundant value scales and inform that travel behavior was settled by a persons general and vacation-specific lifestyle. Menzes and Chandra (1989) used the personality trait descriptors to profile the U.S. tourists visiting far-away destinations in the Far eastbound and compared them with other overseas destination segments. Kassarjian (1971) used the personality concept to illuminate consumer product and media choice, risk taken, and persuasibility.Rokeach (1979) give a definition to values as beliefs most desirable goals and modes of conduct(p.41). Values are criteria that people use to direct their behavior, eval uate, and judge themselves and others, come to a decision what is worth believing in and doing and it also determine social behavior (Rokeach, 1979). Rokeach (1973) argued that the differences in peoples cultural values determine differences in their behavior because values determine cultural differences in thinking, activities, attitudes, motivations, and human needs.It said that values control behavioral variables that interact with and influence each other. For example, values of visitors provide an indication of the visitors personality (Pitts Woodside, 1986), values represent a alternate for personality traits (Dhalla Mahatto, 1976 Howard, 1977). Values manipulate peoples motivations (Bailey, 1991). Values are mainly useful in the assessment of the customers motivation (Dichter, 1984 Munson, 1984). They are a means to better understand consumer motivations (Henry, 1976 Kahle, 91984 Leesig, 1976 Vinson, Scott, Lamont, 1977) because it allow marketers to better understand the individuals motives in making travel decisions (Pitts Woodside, 1986). Pitts and Woodside (1986) claimed that travel motivation is directly influence by peoples values. For example, the motivation to travel to New Zealand to experience challenge and adventure or to spend a quiet vacation close to origin places is determine by travelers values.Values also symbolize the preferences for actions (Kluckhohn Strodtbeck, 1951). Value profiles allow for differentiating between those who participate in particular travel-related activity behavior (Pitts Woodside, 1986). It also appears to determine peoples lifestyle (Dhalla Mahatto, 1976 Howard, 1977). Mitchell (1983) used a VALS (value-lifestyle) typology to separate Americans into nine different lifestyle types, which were further group in four categories based on their values, each of these groups with different travel habits.The importance of the personality characteristics of the individual, in combination with other psychographic fa ctors was stressed (Plog, 1974). Plog (1991) reported that personality determines destination travel patterns and also travelers motivation as well as activities. Allocentric travelers tend to travel to unfamiliar and unique destination such as China and Africa they are active, independent, actuate by novelty, discovery, and meeting with new people, and focus on varied activities. Psychocentric travelers tend to visit familiar and well-established locations such as Hawaii they are less active, prefer to travel in groups, and participate in common activities (Plog, 1972).Leisure-oriented traveler were more intrinsically motivated (e.g., by doing amours for their own sake, obtaining purely internal rewards only) than those who were extrinsically motivated (e.g., by money or social approval) (Ingham, 1986). Intrinsically motivated individual also could cope better with stressful life events and activities (Maddi Kobasa, 1981).Personality found to be a major determinant of preference s for activities as well. In a study of high school student activity participation, Howard (1976) acknowledged a high correlation between personality measures and preferences for waste activities. Eysenck (1976, 1981) found that extroverts and introverts move in different activities. Extroverts is those who needed to have people around them, easygoing, like socializing and preferred highly social activities such as parties while introverts who tended to be shy and cautions preferred a well-ordered lifestyle, avoided social activities and excitement. Besides, it was renowned that individuals who sought sensation spent more time engaged in highly stimulating and risky activities than those who did not seek sensation (Zuckerman, 1979). Plog (1991) reported that the energy (high energy) and lethargy (low energy) level determines various activities levels between touristsIso-Ahola (1980) argued that the relationship between motivation and activities was affected by different social e nvironment as well as social influences. For example, low correlations between motivation and the degree and extent of activity were found. This might be due to a number of problems such as the lack of specifications of the distinct activities in surveys, the respondents lack of time or finance to participate in activities, lack of the facilities uncommitted (Ruskin Shamir, 1984), information about activities, perceived incompetence, or sociocultural constraints (Iso-Ahola Mannell, 1985).An individuals lifestyle is made up of a pattern of daily routine activities (Roberts, 1978). Some lifestyles are characterized by a numerous of activities others are specialized and limited to a few favored activities. Person lifestyles were represented by the most popular activities (Glyptis, 1981). A number of contrasting lifestyles based on peoples activities patterns had been notable (Glyptis, 1981). Differences in lifestyle were found between foreign and domestic travelers (Woodside Pitts , 1976), visitors and non-visitors to national parks (Mayo, 1975), tourists to Massachusetts (Schewe Calantone, 1978) and in history-oriented and non-history-oriented travelers (Solomon George, 1977). Every segment had different travel motivations and preferences for vacation activities.Distinct vacation styles were identifying for various groups of vacationers such as Goodrich (1978) identified different vacation lifestyles for four groups of holidaymakers. For example, passive entertainment, active sports, outdoor types, and historical and cultural interests each of it with different interests and preferences for vacation activities. Crask (1981) identified differences in five vacation segments such as rest and relaxation vacationers, sightseers, cost conscious/ attraction-oriented, sports enthusiasts, and campers which all with distinct vacation interests, motivation, and preferences for activities. Shih (1986) who reported different lifestyles for three major segments such as belongers, achievers, and societal conscious each with different interests and criteria when selecting vacation destination. Another study is Zins (1999) which identified nine different vacation styles for distinct psychographic profiles of travelers (sightseeing tourist, family escapist, carefree wellness tourist, ottoman seeker, demanding pleasure traveler, cultural interactionist, ambience seeker, relax-in-safety tourist, and nature-loving vacationer) with each of them obtained different preferences for vacation activities.Gonzalez and doorbell (2002) explained that lifestyle permitted greater knowledge of variables in influencing travel behavior. The study conducted in Spain manage to identify five tourist lifestyle radical Loving, Idealistic, Autonomous, Hedonistic, and Conservative. Home Loving generally focused on family life, they preferred to have a vacation accompanied by their families, and domestic destinations are the most browse for a vacation destination. Ideal istic is the group who enjoy music, sport, theatre or outdoor activities and they does not spend much money on accommodation and is fond of country villages.Meanwhile, for Autonomous, they view success as fundamentally link with individual freedom and independence and places great emphasis on enjoying life and are not attracted to cultural activities. They spend their holiday time using low-priced accommodation and favor city destinations. The Hedonistic segment consists of individual that attracted to pleasure and tends to travel in the company of friends and they are those people attracted to freshly arrived products or services on the market. Lastly, Conservative is a home-loving segment, they focuses on the wellbeing of their family. They are attracted to traditional domestic seaside destinations.Hawes (1988) conducted a study of travel-related lifestyle that was base on an age-specific (demography) study. It was focusing on older women. Factor analysis result, showed three ma jor underlying dimension within this group travel, which were labeled as traveler, laid back and dreamer. The traveler focus on vacation travel orientation and is generally associated with singleness or teensy-weensy household size, activeness, acceptance or liking of excitement and uncertainty, higher income and education. The laid back indicates an acceptance of vacation travel but essentially of the domestic, unexciting, unhurried, kinda and relaxing, more concerned with indebtedness and less affluent. The dreamer reflects an orientation in vicarious thrills and wishing or dreaming substitute for the real thing and television was found to be their main resource of information for travel decision.Nicolau and Mas (2004) find that personal characteristics such as personal restrictions and socio-demographic and psychographic characteristics relate to the holiday decisions of going on holiday, chosen destination, foreign holidays and multi-destination holidays. A number of studies investigate constraints on travel behavior that arguably differ from general vacant behavior in many ways, such as cost, commitment and durations. It was said that constraints and facilitators operate differently in influencing travel role and choice. Age is an highly important travel constraint and Romsa and Blenman (1989) study the vacation patterns of ancient Germans, and Teaff and Turpin (1996) study the older Americans travel behavior. They both agreed that the taking of vacations declines with age.Socio-economic, physical, psychological, and physiological (age related) constraints play an important position in the underlying processes related to the behavior of elderly vacationer (Romsa et al., 1989). The choices of vacation destination and holiday activities are constrained by the physical situation of seniors. Intergenerational effects also probable operate to impact on the travel of these older persons. Nevertheless, Teaff and Turpin (1996) find that older Americans trav el more frequently and longer distances, stay away longer, and rely more on travel agents than other segments of the people. Some evidence, though, shows that travelers take longer vacations after age of retirement. Retirees are significantly more likely to be constrained by disability, perception of age, physical energy, and health conditions.The family bike is also a important constraint to travel choice behavior. In a study of the family life cycle (FLC) of German travelers, Opperman (1995) argued that FLC affects travel patterns considerably. There are many aspects of the tourists travel pattern relate to the stages of their family life cycle. Destination choice, transportation and usage of accommodation relate to differences in economic status and in discretionary income available for travelling. Lifetime experience, choices of accommodation and destination differ according to age stage. Travel purpose and especially the travel season were influenced by the family life cycle. Children have been traveled as an influence on family travel decision such as in Nickerson and Jurowski (2001) study the influences of children on vacation travel patterns that provide a perspective about planning and development with a view to increasing child satisfaction at the destination.Gilber and Hudson (2000) see life cycle as a useful conceptual and analytical framework to investigate the experience of leisure constraints. Many life cycle issues contribute to personal ecology research and researchers concluded that different people do not experience constraints in the similar way. McGehee, N., Loker-Murphy,L. and Uysal, M. (1996) investigate the Australian international pleasure market with used gender and other demographic factors such as marital status, age, education, occupation and income to analyze travel motivation and travel patterns, finding that Australia women and men are motivated differently in their pleasure travel experience. Meric and Hunt (1998) find eco-tou rists tend to be middle-aged and have higher education and income levels to reveals the general and specific activity preferences of them. It is likely that selected demographics can act as a determinant of travel preferences, possibly influencing preferred activities and their demographics can act as a constraint on travel intention and behavior.Mayo and Jarvis (1981) claimed out that, a common denominator that probably underlies all forms of leisure travel is the need for variety. Well-adjusted individuals need a balance of harmony and complexity in their lives by seeking consistency in certain domains of experience and complexity in others, consistency theory explains that people, expecting a particular thing to happen, do not want to be confronted by something unexpected(Mayo and Jarvis, 1981). On the other hand, complexity theory states that novelty, unexpectedness, change, and unpredictability are pursued because they are inherently satisfying (Mayo and Jarvis, 1981). They al so stated that travel allows people to escape from the boredom of consistency and tension allows us to experience complexity of novelty, change, and unpredictability.Correspondingly, Iso-Ahola (1980) noted that people search for different levels of stimulation they avoid either over stimulation (mental and physical fatigue) or boredom (too little stimulation. He claimed that leisure needs change during the life span and across place and social company and that, individuals do not have numerous leisure needs in mind and do not rationalize specific cause of participation if their involvement is intrinsically motivated. Besides, it is important of participants feelings of self-determination and competence to operate satisfaction (Iso-Ahola, 1980).Two types of motivations are 1) physiological motivations stemming from biological needs, such as food, waste elimination and water, and 2) psychological, motivations